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Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (Sophia; 4 September 1557 – 4 October 1631) was Queen of Denmark and Norway from 1572 to 1588 as the wife of Frederick II. She was the mother of Christian IV and Anne of Denmark, and served as regent of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from 1590 to 1594. Especially noted for her effective management of her extensive dower lands and a large credit operation, which made her one of the wealthiest landowners and financiers of her time, she was an influential political figure in Northern Europe.

The only child of Ulrich III of Mecklenburg-Güstrow and Elizabeth of Denmark, Sophie married her first cousin Frederick in 1572, aged fourteen. Their union is widely described as unusually affectionate for the period. As queen, she maintained her own household and patronages and pursued interests in natural philosophy, astrology, alchemy, chemistry and iatrochemistry. She supported scholars including Anders Vedel and Tycho Brahe, whom she visited on Ven in 1586 and later. She did not, however, exercise formal political power during the reign of her husband. Following Frederick’s death in 1588, Sophie sought to lead the regency for the underage Christian IV, bringing her into conflict with the Council of the Realm. Although she did not prevail in directing the royal regency, she was recognised by the Danish nobility and Emperor Rudolf II as regent in the duchies until 1594, after which she withdrew to her dower lands, consisting of Lolland and Falster. From there she continued to intervene in affairs of state through correspondence, credit, and marriage diplomacy, arranging advantageous Protestant alliances for her daughters and for Christian IV with the houses of Stuart, Welf (Brunswick-Lüneburg), Hohenzollern (Brandenburg), Holstein-Gottorp and Wettin (Saxony), often contributing substantial funds for jewellery and dowries herself.

As dowager, Sophie reorganised her dower estate's administration, undertook agrarian improvements, and operated an extensive lending business. By advancing large loans at interest, among others to Christian IV, James VI and I and several German princes, she secured influence over policy and wartime finance. Drawing on her "inexhaustible coffers", she provided financial support to the Danish–Norwegian realm, subsidising major royal initiatives in construction and warfare. By contemporary and modern accounts she amassed an extraordinary fortune, becoming the richest woman in Northern Europe and, by some assessments, the second-wealthiest individual in Europe after Maximilian I of Bavaria. At her death, James Howell, secretary to the English Ambassador in Denmark, described her as the “richest Queen in Christendom".

Sophie’s political role extended beyond finance. Through steady correspondence and mediation among Protestant courts, she influenced Danish foreign policy during the confessional conflicts of her son’s reign, participating in efforts to form a Protestant league, and conducting considerable diplomacy in the early phases of the Thirty Years’ War. Historians note that through these strategies she “[financed] diplomacy and war”, and her efforts contributed to the diplomatic course leading to the Treaty of Lübeck (1629), which ended Denmark’s active participation in the conflict.

Earlier historiography often minimised or disparaged her agency, dismissing her as power-hungry and rapacious. However, some 19th-century writers, notably Ellen Jørgensen, praised her “unparalleled skill” and “indomitable resourcefulness”. Recent scholarship reassesses her widowhood and emphasises her entrepreneurship and, in particular, her capacity to entrench herself as a pervasive force within the political landscape of late Reformation Denmark and northern Europe. She died at Nykøbing Castle in 1631 and was buried in Roskilde Cathedral.

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Frederick II (1 July 1534 – 4 April 1588) was King of Denmark and Norway and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein from 1559 until his death in 1588.

A member of the House of Oldenburg, Frederick began his personal rule of Denmark-Norway at the age of 24. He inherited capable and strong realms, formed in large by his father after the civil war known as the Count's Feud, after which Denmark-Norway saw a period of economic recovery and of a great increase in the centralised authority of the Crown.

Frederick was, especially in his youth and unlike his father, belligerent and adversarial, aroused by honor and national pride, and so he began his reign auspiciously with a campaign under the aged Johan Rantzau, which reconquered Dithmarschen. However, after miscalculating the cost of the Northern Seven Years' War, he pursued a more prudent foreign policy. The remainder of Frederick II's reign was a period of tranquillity, in which king and nobles prospered. Frederick spent more time hunting and feasting with his councillors, and focused on architecture and science. During his reign, many building projects were begun, including additions to the royal castles of Kronborg at Elsinore and Frederikborg Castle at Hillerød.

Frederick has to a great extent been overshadowed by his popular, long-reigning son Christian IV, and often been portrayed with skepticism and resentment, resulting in the prevailing portrait of Frederick as a man and as king: an unlettered, inebriated, brutish sot. This portrayal is, however, inequitable and inaccurate, and recent studies reappraise and acknowledge him as highly intelligent; he craved the company of learned men, and in the correspondence and legislation he dictated to his secretaries he showed himself to be quick-witted and articulate. Frederick was also open and loyal, and had a knack for establishing close personal bonds with fellow princes and with those who served him.

In 1572, Frederick married his cousin Sophie of Mecklenburg. Their relationship is regarded as one of the happiest royal marriages in Renaissance Europe. In the first ten years after the wedding, they had seven children, and are described as inseparable and harmonious.

Frederick was committed to becoming the mightiest king in the North, and for several years he fought exhausting wars against his archrival Erik XIV of Sweden, after which the battles changed character. It became a competition to see who could trace their family history the furthest, and who could construct the most formidable castles. In the 1570s he constructed Kronborg, a large Renaissance castle that became widely recognized abroad, and its dance hall was the largest in Northern Europe at the time. He enjoyed entertaining guests and throwing elaborate festivities, which were well known throughout Europe. During the same period, the Danish-Norwegian fleet was developed into one of Europe's largest and most modern. As part of his efforts to strengthen the kingdoms, he provided much support for science and culture.

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